Lead is a very toxic element and can cause a variety of symptoms at low concentrations. Lead dust or fumes can irritate the eyes on contact, as well as causing irritation to the nose and throat on inhalation. Acute exposure can lead to loss of appetite, weight loss, stomach upsets, nausea and muscle cramps. High levels of acute exposure may also cause brain and kidney damage. Chronic exposure can lead to effects on the blood, kidneys, central nervous system and vitamin D metabolism.
Acute effects of copper fumes can lead to irritation of the eyes, nose and throat, resulting in coughing, wheezing and nosebleeds. It may also cause 'metal fume fever', which is a flu-like illness that has symptoms of a metallic taste, fever, chill, aches and chest tightness. Chronic exposure may lead to decreased fertility in both men and women. Severe irritation and ulcers in the nose may also occur.
Inhaled chromium is a carcinogen, leading to an increased risk of lung cancer. Acute exposure effects can result in shortness of breath, coughing and wheezing, whilst chronic exposure effects lead to perforation and ulceration of the septum, bronchitis, pneumonia, and decreased pulmonary function.
Base cations such as calcium are important in the environment because deposition has an impact upon surface pH, causing an increase in alkalinity, thereby buffering or neutralizing the effects of acidity generated by sulphur and nitrogen. It is for this reason these emissions are of interest, rather than their negative impacts upon human health or ecosystems.
Effects of acute inhalation exposure to cadmium consist mainly of effects on the lung, such as pulmonary irritation. Chronic effects via inhalation can cause a build-up of cadmium in the kidneys that can lead to kidney disease.
Acute exposure to high levels of arsenic via the inhalation of dust or fumes leads to gastrointestinal effects such as nausea, diarrhoea and abdominal pain. Chronic inhalation exposure to inorganic arsenic is associated with irritation of the mucous membranes as well as being strongly associated with lung cancer. Emissions have declined by 83% since 1970.
Sulphur dioxide (SO2 expressed as SOx) has long been recognized as a pollutant because of its role, along with particulate matter, in forming winter-time smog. Studies indicate that SO2 causes nerve stimulation in the lining of the nose and throat. This can cause irritation, coughing and a feeling of chest tightness, which may cause the airways to narrow. People suffering from asthma are considered to be particularly sensitive to SO2 concentrations.
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) was used as a biocide in the timber and textile industries in the UK as it was effective in destroying insect eggs. Its use is now strictly limited by UK law. Pentachlorophenol is associated with both acute and chronic effects on human health through inhalation. Acute effects can lead to eye irritation as well as liver, blood and neurological effects. Chronic exposure can result in effects on the respiratory tract, immune system, liver, kidneys, blood as well as the eyes and nose.
Particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5 micrometres (µm) is referred to as PM2.5.
The physical and chemical composition, source and particle size of airborne particulate matter varies widely. Particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 10 micrometres (µm) is referred to as PM10. Historically, interest in particulate matter focused mainly on smoke which can cause health problems especially in combination with other pollutants. However, recent epidemiological evidence has also linked concentrations of particles in the atmosphere with human health effects.